Indonesia

Before 1942

Between 1942 & 1945 (JO)

After 1945

Dutch suppressed all forms of resistance and denied all requests for autonomy / independence.

Eg: Suppression of PKI (1927), repression of PNI (Sukarno jailed in 1933), rejection of Sutardjo Petition (1936), failure of Wiwoho Resolution (1940)

So: Locals felt that Europeans were too powerful to be defeated. Nationalists were unable to operate freely.

Myth/mystique of European superiority shattered by Japanese.

Eg: Japanese soldiers imprisoned many of the Dutch and Eurasians. Some were also killed, while others were sent to work on the Death Railway.

So: Locals realised that Europeans were just as vulnerable as themselves to foreign invasion. Tha fact that an Asian power (Japan) could defeat the Europeans gave hope to the nationalists that they can soon gain their independence.

Nationalists were determined more than ever that foreign rule should not continue in Indonesia. The Japanese had proven that Westerners can be equally weak as Asians.

Dutch controlled the spread of nationalist movements strictly and many political groups were banned under suspicion of being anti-colonial.

Eg: PKI banned in 1927, PNI came under surveillance in the 1930s

So: Nationalist movements before 1942 were very limited in their membership and could not be openly critical of the Dutch administration for fear of being suppressed.

Japanese gave legitimacy to many nationalist political groups and encouraged them to expand their membership.

Eg: Japanese actively stirred up anti-colonial propaganda among the masses and enlisted the help of nationalist leaders. Permuda or youth organizations were established all over Indonesia to promote anti-colonial and pro-Japanese sentiments among the locals.

So: Mass nationalism started during the JO and led to popular participation in anti-colonial movements. For eg, the Masyumi had over 50, 000 youth members, while the Jawa Hokokai was 80,000-strong. These groups would be instrumental in fighting the Dutch after the surrender of the Japanese.

Mass and popular political movements were a key factor in fighting against the British and Dutch when they returned after WWII. During the First and Second Police Action, 1947-1948 (Dutch military campaign to reclaim control over the Indonesian archipelago) the Indonesian youth groups played a crucial part under the leadership of Sukarno in defeating the Dutch.

Indonesia

Before 1942

Between 1942 & 1945 (JO)

After 1945

Dutch offered few political concessions before 1942. The concessions offered were also superficial (politically insignificant).

Eg: Volksraad established in 1916, but was largely an advisory body with no legislative powers.

Japanese helped the local nationalist leaders to establish indigenous military units and local government. While this provided an opportunity for the local leaders to exercise their political leadership, they were subject to the overall control of the Japanese rulers.

Eg: Establishment of the Pembela Tanah Air or Peta (Protectors of the Fatherland).

So: Nationalist leaders became confident that they can rule the country independently and started anti-colonial and anti-Japanese propaganda.

The short-lived local government helped “train” the local leaders like Sukarno and Hatta in running an independent government. This, coupled with the frustration towards the Japanese for having ultimate control over the government and the many hardships they imposed on the people, produced an ardent desire amongst the indigenous political parties to retain absolute local control of government and never allow another foreign power to wrestle control of Indonesia from them again.

Pauperisation of the masses under Dutch economic exploitation. Locals had to concentrate on growing cash crops at the expense of food crops and were indentured to the Dutch landowners. However, they still had an orderly system of earning compensation for their work even though many earned only meager wages.

During Japanese rule, there was increasing economic turmoil and intense food shortages due to Allied bombings and trade embargoes that prevented food, medical and essential supplies from reaching the Indonesian archipelago. This was compounded by unfair Japanese trade practices where they bought local raw materials at very low prices to be shipped to the ‘motherland’ (Japan), but not many manufactured goods from Japan made their way to Indonesia due to the wartime naval attacks.

Eg: This resulted in food rationing, hoarding, black markets, which in turn led to prices of essential commodities spiraling out of control, severe unemployment and the eventual total devaluation of the Japanese ‘banana’ currency.

So: Indonesians not only felt betrayed by the

Indonesia

Before 1942

Between 1942 & 1945 (JO)

After 1945

Japanese, but became overtly anti-Japanese in their sentiments. Thus, it was easy for the local leaders to mobilize political support among the masses using anti-Japanese feelings.

Dutch rule discriminated against the local people. Indonesians as well as immigrants from China, India, etc were generally denied equal pay for equal work as compared to their Dutch counterparts. Non-Dutch people were also not treated socially as equals to the Dutch, who saw themselves as superior to non-Europeans.

Eg: Not many locals could enter the civil service or even the military. Only a select group of local elites were allowed Dutch education.

Although the Japanese proclaimed an ‘Asia for the Asians’ when they first arrived, soon their rule became as discriminatory as the Dutch rule they replaced.

Eg: There was an intentional and widespread policy of nipponisation by which the local people had to pay respect to the Emperor of Japan, sing the Japanese anthem, learn the Japanese language, etc, because the local customs were treated as inferior. The Japanese rule was also very harsh as many people, especially those hated or suspected by the Japanese, were sent to work on the Death Railway.

So: The local leaders and common people were convinced that the Japanese were not the saviours they promised to be, but just another colonial power like the Europeans.

Vietnam

Before 1942

Between 1942 & 1945 (JO)

After 1945

French suppressed all forms of resistance and denied all requests for autonomy / independence.

Eg: Dissolution of Chau’s initiatives (1907), suppression of Trinh’s rebellion (1908), refusal to legalise the Vietnam People’s Progressive Party (formed in 1926 and forced to operate underground), suppression of ICP (1930-31).

So: Locals felt that Europeans were too powerful to be defeated. Nationalists were unable to operate freely. Consequently, some parties such as the Buddhist Hoa Hoa movement and the Confucian Cao Dai movement became ready allies of the Japanese when they came.

Myth/mystique of European superiority shattered by Japanese.

Eg: Although the French were allowed to retain nominal control of Indochina due to a pact signed with Vichy France (the Nazi-controlled puppet government set up in France under Hitler’s command), Japanese soldiers still had ultimate control over government decisions. They also managed to usurp control over the economy.

So: Locals realised that Europeans were just as vulnerable as themselves to foreign invasion. Tha fact that an Asian power (Japan) could defeat the Europeans gave hope to the nationalists that they can soon gain their independence.

Nationalists like Ho Chi Minh were determined more than ever that foreign rule should not continue in Vietnam. The Japanese had proven that Westerners can be equally weak as Asians.

French controlled the spread of nationalist movements strictly and many political groups were banned under suspicion of being anti-colonial.

Eg: Vietnam People’s Progressive Party never granted legal status, ICP suppressed in 1930-31, VNQDD leaders guillotined in 1930 rendering the party virtually ineffective till 1945.

So: Nationalist movements before 1942 were very limited in their membership and could not be openly critical of the French administration for fear of being suppressed. Even the pro-French movements that sought to modernize Vietnam were suppressed (Chau and Trinh).

Japanese-French rivalry resulted in the Japanese giving legitimacy to some nationalist political groups, which were banned by the French and encouraging them to expand their membership. At the same time, the communists were also able to take advantage of the changed political climate and actively seek support of the masses in rural areas.

Eg: Japanese actively supported Cao Dai and Hoa Hoa movements. The Vietminh emerged as the political leadership of the ICP. Later, the Vietcong was established as its military wing to propagate and garner anti-colonial and anti-French support from the masses.

Mass and popular political movements were a key factor in fighting against the British and Dutch when they returned after WWII. During the First Indochinese War (French military campaign to reclaim control over northern Vietnam, 1945-54) the Vietminh played the crucial role in mobilizing the peasants and other local groups against the French.

Vietnam

Before 1942

Between 1942 & 1945 (JO)

After 1945

So: Mass nationalism started during the JO and led to popular participation in anti-colonial and anti-Japanese movements. The Vietminh took advantage of popular rural and urban support and the people’s discontent (helped by a serious famine in the North) to start a political and military struggle for power, which resulted in the success of the August Revolution.

French offered few political concessions before 1942. The concessions offered were also superficial (politically insignificant).

Eg: French Governor-General Sarraut offered hope of progressive policies. The Colonial Council (a parliament of sorts established in 1880), increased its membership from 6 local Vietnamese out of 18 members to 10 out of 24 by 1922, but the Vietnamese members played a largely consultative role with no legislative powers.

Japanese rule in Vietnam was significantly different from Burma and Indonesia in that they did not promote any local nationalist leaders to power nor did they seek to establish any indigenous administration. This was because of the agreement they had with Vichy France which forced them to retain French colonial rule in Indochina, but under their overlordship. However, in March 1945, in an effort to hinder restoration of Allied control, the Japanese dissolved the French colonial government and encouraged the puppet Vietnamese Emperor, Bao Dai, to declare Vietnamese independence under Japanese tutelage.

So: Vietminh became wary of the Japanese and acted to gain support of the masses in North Vietnam.

The denial of the Vietnamese to self-rule, coupled with the frustration towards the Japanese for having ultimate control over the government and the many hardships they imposed on the people, produced an ardent desire amongst the indigenous political parties to retain absolute local control of government and never allow another foreign power to wrestle control of Vietnam from them again. Thus, when the French returned, they could only retake control of South Vietnam (under the Emperor, Bao Dai), whereas the North was totally infiltrated by the communist Vietminh and their supporters.

Burma

Before 1942

Between 1942 & 1945 (JO)

After 1945

British in Burma were willing to address local concerns over religious practices, education and political desire for autonomy. However, they were not prepared to grant independence.

Eg: Success of YMBA in securing rights of the Burmese to dictate local and religious customs (Shoe Question, 1916), success of GCBA in securing a limited measure of home rule for Burma (Dyarchy system, 1923-35), separation from India with increased home rule measure (1935-42), Thakin protests against British colonial rule (1930-42).

So: Locals felt that British were too powerful to be defeated. Nationalists became ever more restless.

Myth/mystique of European superiority shattered by Japanese.

Eg: Japanese soldiers imprisoned many of the British and Eurasians. Some were also killed, while others were sent to work on the Death Railway.

So: Locals realised that Europeans were just as vulnerable as themselves to foreign invasion. Tha fact that an Asian power (Japan) could defeat the Europeans gave hope to the nationalists that they can soon gain their independence.

Nationalists, under the leadership of the Thakins, were determined more than ever that foreign rule should not continue in Burma. The Japanese had proven that Westerners can be equally weak as Asians.

British offered few political concessions before 1942. The concessions offered were also superficial (politically insignificant).

Eg: Dyarchy established in 1923, which gave legislative powers over agriculture, forestry, education, etc to the Burmese members of the government, but the British Governor retained control over finance, revenue, police, justice, etc. He could also veto decisions made by the Burmese members. Separation from India in 1935 produced few significant changes.

Japanese helped the local nationalist leaders to establish an indigenous government. While this provided an opportunity for the local leaders to exercise their political leadership, they were subject to the overall control of the Japanese rulers.

Eg: Japanese helped to create a local Burmese Army and a local government under the Thirty Comrades. General Aung San rose to prominence during this period.

So: Nationalist leaders became confident that they can rule the country independently and started anti-Japanese propaganda. In fact, due to their relatively less repressive rule (as compared to

Mass and popular political movements were a key factor in fighting against the British when they returned after WWII. Thus, in 1945, when Gen. Aung San met with the British to discuss how the Burmese could help to drive out the Japanese, he made it very clear that his status was that of an ally (equal) and not of a colonial subject. The AFPFL also proved to be too firmly entrenched in Burmese politics and had too strong a mass support to be defeated by the British. Thus, the British had hardly any choice but to grant independence within one year of the talks held in 1947.

Burma

Before 1942

Between 1942 & 1945 (JO)

After 1945

other colonial powers), the British were sought by the Thakin leadership to help the latter fight off the Japanese. Thus, the Burmese government organised a secret anti-Japanese movement to rally mass support against foreign rule called the Ant-Fascist People’s Freedom League (AFPFL).

Pauperisation of the masses under British economic exploitation, although not as severe as in other colonial territories. Locals had to concentrate on growing cash crops at the expense of food crops and were indentured to the British landowners. However, they still had an orderly system of earning compensation for their work.

During Japanese rule, there was increasing economic turmoil and intense food shortages due to Allied bombings and trade embargoes that prevented food, medical and essential supplies from reaching the Indonesian archipelago. This was compounded by unfair Japanese trade practices where they bought local raw materials at ver low prices to be shipped to the ‘motherland’ (Japan), but not many manufactured goods from Japan made their way to Indonesia due to the wartime naval attacks.

Eg: This resulted in food rationing, hoarding, black markets, which in turn led to prices of essential commodities spiraling out of control, severe unemployment and the eventual total devaluation of the Japanese ‘banana’ currency.

So: Burmese not only felt betrayed by the Japanese, but became overtly anti-Japanese in their sentiments. Thus, it was easy for the local leaders (AFPFL) to mobilise political support among the masses using anti-Japanese feelings.

Burma

Before 1942

Between 1942 & 1945 (JO)

After 1945

British rule discriminated against the local people. Burmese as well as immigrants from China, India, etc were generally denied equal pay for equal work as compared to their British counterparts. Non-British people were also not treated socially as equals to the British, who saw themselves as superior to non-Europeans.

Eg: Not many locals could enter the civil service or even the military. English schools were not made available to the general populace and no efforts were taken to make education compulsory or universal.

Although the Japanese proclaimed an ‘Asia for the Asians’ when they first arrived, soon their rule became as discriminatory as the British rule they replaced, if not worse.

Eg: There was an intentional and widespread policy of nipponisation by which the local people had to pay respect to the Emperor of Japan, sing the Japanese anthem, learn the Japanese language, etc, because the local customs were treated as inferior. The Japanese rule was also very harsh as many people, especially those hated or suspected by the Japanese, were sent to work on the Death Railway.

So: The local leaders and common people were convinced that the Japanese were not the saviours they promised to be, but just another colonial power like the Europeans.